Sasanian Persian Empire
The last pre-Islamic Persian empire (224–651 CE), Rome's most formidable eastern rival for four centuries, a Zoroastrian theocracy that nearly destroyed the Byzantine Empire, then collapsed within a decade to the Arab-Islamic conquests it had fatally weakened itself to resist.
The Sasanian Empire (named for Sasan, ancestor of its founder Ardashir I) was the greatest power of the ancient Near East from its founding to its collapse. It represented itself as the legitimate continuation of the Achaemenid Persian Empire that Alexander had destroyed, and ruled its territory with comparable sophistication.
Its relationship with Rome and later Byzantium was the defining geopolitical rivalry of late antiquity. The two empires fought approximately 10 major wars over 400 years, neither able to destroy the other. The Sasanians captured the Roman Emperor Valerian in 260, the only time a Roman emperor was taken prisoner by a foreign enemy, and used him as a footstool. Their capital Ctesiphon was sacked by Roman armies multiple times but always recovered.
The climax came under Khosrow II (r. 590–628): in the Byzantine-Sasanian War of 602–628, the Sasanians conquered Egypt, the Levant, and Anatolia, the greatest Persian territorial expansion since Darius. Byzantine Emperor Heraclius responded with one of history's most extraordinary counterattacks, invading Persia itself and forcing peace. Both empires were utterly exhausted.
The Arab-Islamic conquest found the Sasanian Empire in its weakest moment. The conquest that took the Byzantines 20 years to halt eliminated the Sasanians in a decade (637–651). The Zoroastrian civilization of Iran was replaced by Islam within two generations, one of history's most complete cultural transformations.
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Frequently asked questions
Why did the Sasanian Empire collapse so quickly to the Arab conquest? ＋
The Byzantine-Sasanian War (602–628) had exhausted both empires. The Sasanians had overextended in conquering Egypt, Levant, and Anatolia, then had those gains stripped by Heraclius. When the Arabs arrived in the 630s, the Sasanian military was depleted, the treasury empty, and the political system in crisis. They were conquered in a decade.
How powerful was the Sasanian Empire compared to Rome? ＋
The most formidable rival Rome ever faced in the East. They captured the Roman Emperor Valerian in 260, the only Roman emperor taken prisoner by a foreign enemy. The two empires fought approximately 10 major wars over 400 years without either being able to destroy the other. Sasanian Ctesiphon was the largest city in the world at times.