Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Swiss-French philosopher (1712–1778) who argued that civilization corrupts natural human goodness, theorized the social contract and general will, and provided the intellectual foundation for both democracy and totalitarianism.
Rousseau stands at the center of modern political thought, and at its most dangerous contradiction. His Discourse on Inequality (1754) argued that humans are naturally good but corrupted by society and private property: 'Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains.' This romantic critique of civilization provided the emotional core of the French Revolution.
His Social Contract (1762) attempted to solve this problem politically: people surrender individual freedom to the collective in exchange for genuine freedom as part of the community. The mechanism is the general will, the collective interest that transcends individual preferences. The state represents the general will.
The problem, identified by later critics, is that the general will can justify tyranny: if the state embodies the will of the people, any individual who opposes the state is opposing the people themselves. Robespierre invoked Rousseau's general will to justify the Terror. Modern totalitarianism borrowed the same logic. Rousseau is simultaneously the father of democracy and one of totalitarianism's intellectual progenitors.
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What is Rousseau's general will? ＋
The collective interest of the community as a whole, distinct from the sum of individual preferences. Rousseau argued that the state should embody the general will, giving it authority over individuals who pursue selfish interests.
How did Rousseau influence the French Revolution? ＋
Robespierre was deeply influenced by Rousseau, he cited the general will to justify the Terror, arguing that executing enemies of the revolution was an expression of the people's collective sovereignty.